lingua

Things Italian people love – #6 Palio e contrada – VIDEO

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Italian people love to belong to their contrada and can’t wait for the day of the Palio to challenge their neighbours.

The Italian Palio  is a traditional contest taking place in many different cities across the country. It can be a horse race, a donkey race, a boat race or even a goose race. In some cities the Palio consists of an ability challenge with ancient weapons, like crossbows. The pattern is always the same: a medieval city divided in rival contrada or rione (neighbourhoods), people wearing strange costumes and one day of passion.

The word Palio comes from Latin Pallium, the precious garment given as price to the winner of the contest. It is at the origin of the common Italian expression “mettere in palio un premio“, to give a prize in a raffle. There are many Medieval cities and towns scattered all over the country and Palio’s are everywhere. For historical reasons Toscana is the region where these traditional contests are more famous abroad, but Palio’s are really everywhere. There are over 400 Palio’s in Italia, and of course we are not going to mention all of them. It’s worth spending a few words on the two most popular ones.

Il Palio di Siena is the most famous, celebrated and symbolic  Palio of Italy. It takes place twice a year in summer, on July 2nd and and August 16th. The first one is called Palio di Provenzano, the latter is called Palio dell’Assunta. The race takes place in the wonderful Piazza del Campo, in the “navel” of Siena. The origin of the Palio di Siena is still not completely clear. Some people say it was already there between 1000 and 1200 a.d. and the horse race was done in a different fashion. The Palio di Siena is based on alliances, bribing, betrayals, pride and old unsolved disputes. The perfect ingredients of a typical Italian drama.

 

Nowadays the competing contrada are 17, named after the medieval bestiario, representing real or imaginary animals: Aquila (Eagle), Bruco (Caterpillar), Chiocciola (Snail), Civetta (Owl), Drago (Dragon), Giraffa (Giraffe), Istrice (Hedgehog), Leocorno (Unicorn), Lupa (She-wolf), Nicchio (Shell), Oca (Goose), Onda (Wave), Pantera (Panther), Selva (Forest), Tartuca (Tortoise), Torre (Tower) and Valdimontone (Mutton). In the Past there were other contrada’s but they were merged or changed with others. The ground rules of the Palio di Siena are overcomplicated, in perfect Italian style. Out of 17 contrada only 10 can run the palio: 7 are the ones which did not run the previous year and 3 are selected at random. The horses are not of pure breed and are assigned to each contrada with a lottery. There have been rumors of bribery and unfair agreements between friend contrada’s, but that’s part of the game. The most critical moment of the race is the start. Only when 9 out of 10 horses are aligned in front of the hemp rope used as start line, the horses are unleashed. It’s a moment of tension and tactics, because allied jockeys can push enemies and change the position of rival horses, putting them in disadvantage. This tactical phase of the race can last for a very long time and I spared you a few minutes of it in the video. If the horses can’t align before sunset, the race is postponed to the day after. The tension hits the peak when the rope is released and horses are free to run. Then anything can happen. Some horses and jockeys fall on the dirt, sometimes horses stand up again with no jockey, and then are called cavallo scosso. Even if not guided a cavallo scosso is lighter than others and can win the Palio. The people of the winning contrada bring the jokey in triumph to their neighbourhood. Rivers of wine music and celebrations last all night. The Palio di Siena is very representative of the Italian mindset towards enemies and rivals. Whilst trying to win is logical, it is also allowed to disturb the other horses. The winner is the first and the loser is the second, not the last to cross the finish line. The Palio di Siena, being always at the centre of attention, is criticized by animal-rights associations, asking for a ban for cruelty on horses. Supporters of the Palio di Siena respond to criticism saying that the rate of injuries on horses are not higher than any other horse race showing statistics and numbers. In the last few years there have been new controls imposed by the Italian authorities and designated vets look after the horses before and after the race. Right or wrong, the Palio di Siena is still one of the most fascinating traditions of Italy.  

Second in terms of popularity, il Palio di Asti, in the northern region of Piemonte, is celebrated since around the year 1000, but the first written mention talking about “an old Palio” is dated 1275. The event celebrates the saint of the city, San Secondo. About 1200 people in medieval costume reproduce the traditional life of the city. The Palio itself consists of a horse race, where 21 horses are mounted bareback, with no saddle. The race takes place every third Sunday of September.

The Palio di Asti is less wild, safer than the Palio di Siena. The Palio stopped because of the war in 1939, and resumed only in 1967. The reborn of the unforgotten tradition of Asti, was so important for the people of the city and the neighbouring villages that no less than 100.000 people came to see the event and celebrate. The Palio consists of three preliminary races, of 7 participants each, and a final. The first price is of course the precious garment, the last price is a pickled anchovy. The race changed location several times. Now is is in the central, triangular, Piazza Alfieri, named after Vittorio Alfieri, an icon of the Italian literature born in Asti in 1749. The preparation of the events taking place in September starts in May and goes on for the whole summer with some minor palio’s and other events, like flags-waving contests. The Palio di Asti was the first one to admit a team of vets for first aid and to work with scientists of the University of Turin in order to improve the circuit, and reduce the risks or accidents or injuries for both jockeys and horses.

We hope you liked this overview. Please visit our homepage and learn more about our Online Italian Language School. Ciao!

Le parti del corpo, body parts in Italian – Podcast and quiz

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We are sure that even if you speak some Italian there are some names of body parts – parti del corpo – you don’t know. We’ll focus on vocabulary and pronunciation. Listen to the audio files and solve the final quiz.

Ok, get ready to listen and repeat the words. We are going to dissect and study the human body just like my esteemed fellow countryman Leonardo da Vinci did some time ago. Well… in less detail.

La testa – The head

As opposed to English, i capelli is a countable noun. So il capello is a single hair. Il sopracciglio belongs to a particular family of Italian nouns, along with other nouns of body parts. The singular is masculine, plural is feminine le sopracciglia ending in -a. This is because in Latin they were neutral words and in Italian (we have no neutral) singular and plural took different genders. At the bottom of the page you will find a recap.

Il torso – the torso (easy!)

In this case the singular word il seno stands generally for both breasts. It is also possible to say i seni, less used. I bet you want to know how we say “ass” instead of the most polite sedere. There you go: culo. 

Gli arti – Limbs

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Finally, it’s worth mentioning the name of the fingers. From thumb to pinky the are: pollice, indice, medio, anulare, mignolo. In Italian il dito, singular is masculine, the plural le dita is feminine. Other nouns with irregular plurals are: sopracciglio, ciglio, braccio, ginocchio, labbro. Try to say the plural following the same rule, LE DITA —-> LE —–A.

A useful tip, hoping you won’t need it. If you feel pain somewhere and need to explain it to an Italian doctor, say:

  • Mi fa male + singular —> Mi fa male la testa
  • Mi fanno male + plural —> Mi fanno male le gambe

Pesto alla genovese, an easy and cheap Italian dressing

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Pesto alla genovese is a very versatile dressing for your pasta, sandwiches and main dishes, fish and meat. Learn how to prepare it with simple ingredients.

I have four big vases full of basilico, so I decided to prepare some simple pesto alla genovese before it blossoms and leaves get hard. Pesto is one of my favourite dishes of the summer.

Some background information. Pesto alla genovese, in Italian simply pesto (in Ligurian language pestu) is a typical condiment originally from Liguria, northern Italy, the region of the famous Cinque Terre, and its capital Genova. There was something similar our ancestors the Romans called moretum but of course they did not have any pasta back then. The basic ingredients of pesto alla genovese are basil (Ocimum basilicum) or, better, the Genovese Basil (in Ligurian language baxeicò). The second key ingredient is pine nuts, then we have Ligurian sweet garlic,  Parmesan cheese (or Sardinian pecorino) and Ligurian olive oil.

I already know Ligurians will complain against a simple Milanese like me for spoiling their recipe, but they will understand that normal people around the world can’t find regular ingredients used in their famous sauce. So…

I used:

  • 100 grams of fresh basil from my garden
  • 50 grams of tender Sicilian almonds (sorry I didn’t have pine nuts in my cupboard)
  • 4 tbs of grated Parmesan cheese
  • 2 cloves of garlic
  • a glass of Italian Olio Extra Vergine di oliva 30 cl
  • salt

The word pesto comes from the verb pestare, to crush, because pesto is traditionally produced with a mortar made of marble and wooden pestle. I have a simple hand blender, built in 2012. No history or romantic tradition here! Nowadays, it is used more than the mortar. Don’t tell the Ligurians, they might say it’s not true.

I grind all the ingredients separately and mix them together in a later stage. So, first I ground the almonds pretty thin, making sure they didn’t turn into a powder. Then grated the parmigiano. Whole garlic is heavy on your stomach, so it’s better to take the core out. The critical step is mixing the olive oil with the basil and the garlic. Add the basil in two or three times. I usually click just a few seconds on the hand blender, let it cool down and start again. You don’t want to heat the ingredients. I like it when basil leaves are not completely turned into a paste. Then finally add the ground almonds, the ground parmigiano, stir and taste it for adjusting salt. Check the texture. If your pesto is too solid, add olive oil.

You should obtain a half pint of pesto. I usually eat some the same evening and freeze the remainder. You can freeze it in ice cube molds.  If you keep in in your fridge, make sure there is always a film of oil on the surface, protecting the content form air. When you cook your pasta, before adding the sauce, mix pesto alla genovese with some spoons of cooking water and make it soft. I cooked it with a typical Ligurian pasta called trofie.

Penny-pinching Ligurians (believe me, they are…) add potatoes and French beans (in Italian fagiolini or cornetti) to spare some more expensive pasta. I have to say the combination of those two ingredients is superb, so try it!

You can use your pesto alla genovese for dressing a sandwich with mozzarella and tomato, or with your fish or white meat. Try it in your potato salad or on your toasted bruschetta with tomato. If you like simple pasta with tomato, add some pesto and double cream (panna da cucina in Italian), you will get a very delicate sauce, called “le 3 P” (3 P’s –> Pesto Panna Pomodoro). I like to add a couple of spoonfuls of pesto alla genovese to my minestrone, in summertime as well as in winter. Please try it at home!

Il Castello di San Martino della Vaneza – the house is on fire!

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This lovely little castle in the middle of the countryside near Padua, is a little time machine, where people can eat medieval food, learn how stuff was done without electricity, watch a battle which took place 800 years ago and see the castle set on fire.

Built on the banks of the unpredictable river Bacchiglione, in the countryside of Veneto, the Castello di San Martino della Vaneza is perhaps the most important symbol of the desperate and futile effort of the people or Padua, just at the beginning of the renaissance period, to keep their freedom against the emerging superpower of Venezia. The year 1372, the Carrara family lead the last succesful defense of Padua against the army of the Serenissima. Their freedom though didn’t last long. When the battle took place, the castle was at least 400 years old, probably older.

Every year people living around the sweet Colli Euganei,  in the Padua countryside, gather in the area of the castle the last weekend of July to revive the event. The fairy-tail forest around the castello looks like it was 800 years ago, with people in ancient costumes baking bread in stone ovens, soldiers in armours preparing for the battle, women cooking traditional food and brewers serving beer or wine.

 

 

At the exclusive supper inside the castle, open to 50 people only (I was lucky enough to be invited ;)) were served medieval traditional dishes and entertainment. It was a great chance to see and taste what rich people ate back then. Poor people, well… they did not eat at all.

 

After the hearty meal, everyone gather in front of the dry bed of the Bacchiglione river, a fantastic natural amphitheatre in front of the castle, and watch the battle. The show is great, there are about 150 modern professional soldiers belonging to clubs of people crazy for medieval fights (I didn’t know there were so many!). They come all over the Veneto region, some from Lombardia, Toscana, Emilia and Umbria, and fight with real weapons! It was impressive to observe the horses, incredibly brave and beautiful animals, the only ones probably thinking the battle was real. Then after the end of battle, the Castello is “set on fire”, to remember the severe damages it had during the battle. If you happen to be in Venezia in July, the event is worth an afternoon/evening outside the city, just one hour driving.

 

 

XIX Palio dello Sparviero 26/27/28 Luglio 2013

Periodo ipotetico – Italian Conditional Sentences

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The Italian periodo ipotetico, is used to express a hypothetical situation and its consequences

This is a very basic introduction to the Italian Periodo ipotetico.Please have a look at the congiuntivo and condizionale if you are not familiar with those grammar points.

The concept of periodo ipotetico is similar to the English conditional sentences. The main clause, called apodosi, (you don’t need to remember that) describes the consequences of the possible action in the dependent clause, called protasi (another word you can happily forget about).

  • Se piove (premise), —> non andiamo in spiaggia (consequence).

That’s the simplest type of periodo ipotetico.

If the weather will be bad, we won’t go to the beach. We use the indicativo, because we are sure about the situation / outcome scenario.

There are three different types of Italian Conditional Sentences

Realtà

If the outcome, given the circumstances, is  REAL we talk about periodo ipotetico della realtà.

  • Se mangi solo verdura, dimagrisci.
  • Se avrai sonno mentre guidi, fermati.
  • Se hai bevuto troppo, ti accompagnerò a casa.

All the sentences begin with Se, (if).

We can swap main and subordinate clauses and obtain the same result: Fermati se avrai sonno mentre guidi. 

In this first type of conditional sentences, we can use the indicativo mood, presente, passato and futuro, sometimes in combination with the imperativo (2nd example). The action is going to happen for sure or it is likely to happen given the right circumstances.

The “formula” for this first periodo ipotetico is

Se + indicativo presente / futuro (dependent) + indicativo or imperativo (main).

Possibilità

If the premise is not realistic at the moment, the outcome will be more vaguely possible. We talk about periodo ipotetico della possibilità.

  • Se avessi dei soldi, comprerei una bella casa.
  • Se vendessi la mia macchina userei l’autobus.
  • Se potessi, ti presterei dei soldi.

If I had the money, I’d buy a nice house. It means that I don’t have money, however…

The “formula” for this second periodo ipotetico is

→ se + congiuntivo imperfetto (dependent) + condizionale presente (main)

Please note that the 2 tenses are not interchangeable, I cant’s use the condizionale in the dependent clause or the congiuntivo in the main clause

  • Se potrei ti presterei dei soldi
  • Se potessi ti prestassi dei soldi

They are both wrong.

Impossibilità (or Irrealtà)

If the action, given the circumstances is impossible or not realistic, we talk about periodo ipotetico dell’irrealtà. The premise is in the past and did not happen, the outcome is pure speculation.

  1. Se non avessi mangiato quattro pizze, adesso non avrei il mal di pancia.
  2. Se fossi andato all’università, adesso forse avrei un bel lavoro.
  3. Se mi fossi svegliato in tempo, non sarei arrivato in ritardo.

All the events causing the condition in the main clause are in the past. The whole period is a representation of an alternative past, so it’s not real.  We can’t change the past. But, what if…

The “formula” for this periodo ipotetico is

→ se + congiuntivo trapassato (dependent) + condizionale presente (main) – Examples 1 & 2

  • The hypothetical action in the past could have had consequences on the present.

→ se + congiuntivo trapassato (dependent) + condizionale passato (main) – Example 3

  • The hypothetical action in the past could have had consequences on the past.

In spoken Italian, there is a tendency to simplify the periodo ipotetico della impossibilità using the imperfetto. 

  • Se mi fossi svegliato in tempo, non sarei arrivato in ritardo. → Se mi svegliavo in tempo non arrivavo in ritardo.

This is quite common in informal spoken Italian and it is acceptable. Of course, many teachers are against this simplification but, as a matter of fact, Italians use it a lot and it’s already encoded in textbooks. I’m totally fine with that.

Again, this is a simplification. Book a free trial class if you want learn more.

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Italian Direct and Indirect Pronouns – Pronomi combinati – QUIZ

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We are going to study how combining Italian direct and indirect pronouns  will simplify the Italian language and complicate your life as a student

–lolalilene
mime lome lame lime leme ne
tite lote late lite lete ne
gliglieloglielaglieliglielegliene
leglieleglielaglieloglielegliene
cice loce lace lice lece ne
vive love lave live leve ne
gli (a loro)glieloglielaglieliglielegliene
sise lose lase lise lese ne

Let’s imagine a dialogue between two young friends. Mario wants to know if Luigi’s father can lend them his car.

  • Mario: “Hai chiesto a tuo padre se ci presta la sua macchina?” Did you ask your father if he will lend (to) us his car?
  • Luigi: “Glielo ho chiesto ma non ce la dà” I asked (it to) him, but won’t give it to us.

Luigi’s answer has all the elements for describing how Italian direct and indirect pronouns can be combined together and avoid redundant elements in a discussion. Let’s analyse what Luigi says.

I asked (it to) him GLIELO —> GLI + LO = GLI means A LUI, to his father; LO stands for asking your father the question


CE LA ➜ CE means A NOI , to us and LA takes place of “la macchina”, it, the car.

Looking at the grid, we can observe some changes:

MI TI SI CI and VI

when combined with direct pronouns become

ME TE SE CE and VE

  • Mi dai le forbici? ➜ ME LE dai? Can you give me the scissors? Can you give them to me?
  • Ti presento una mia amica ➜  TE LA presento  – Let me introduce her to you
  • Giulia si lava la faccia ➜  SE LA lava – Giulia washes it (the face) herself (reflexive SI)
  • La mamma ci ha detto di tornare a casa ➜ CE LO ha detto – She said it to us
  • Vi do dei biscotti ➜  VE LI do – I give them to you

An important note about GLI: it merges with direct pronouns forming complex compound pronouns.

  • Oggi compro a Maria delle scarpe nuove ➜ GLIELE compro – I buy them (feminine) to her

Please remember that Italian direct and indirect pronouns, with indicativo, congiuntivo and condizionale tenses come always BEFORE the verb and are separate:

  • Te lo dico io. Se non te lo dicessi io, te lo direbbe qualcun altro.

We already can see how Italian direct and indirect pronouns match with infinito, imperativo and gerundio. They always come after the verb and merge with it. The same happens when pronouns are combined together.

  • Non posso tenervelo segreto, devo dirvelo – I cant keep it secret to you. I have to say it to you 
  • Mario, devi dare 10 euro a Carlo. Daglieli
  • Non sapevo cosa fare. Parlandotene, mi sono tolto un peso

Now we can see some real examples and practice. I am going to put together some sentences with different tenses and moods. They are only in Italian. Make an effort and try to understand them.

  • Ci presteresti la tua macchina? Ce la presteresti?
  • Mia sorella mi ha regalato una cravatta. Me l’ha regalata.
  • Ci scambieremo i regali a Natale. Ce li scambieremo.
  • Da bambino, mia madre non mi dava mai la coca cola. Non me la dava mai.
  • Mio fratello si è comprato una macchina nuova. Se l’è comprata.
  • Mi fai assaggiare un po’ di risotto? Me ne fai assaggiare un po’?
  • Luca mi aveva detto di non ascoltarti. Me l’aveva detto.
  • Vi dico di non arrivare in ritardo. Ve lo dico.
  • Puoi mandare due pacchi a noi? Ce li puoi mandare?

Please note: when a verb begins with a vowel or a H, LO and LA turn into L’.

  • Giulia si è tolta il maglione. = Se l‘è tolto.
  • Mia sorella mi ha cucinato il pesce. = Me l’ha cucinato.

Please remember that Italians use pronouns very often and learning them correctly will help you to speak fluently. Please take some time for completing the quiz.

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Italian Direct and Indirect Pronouns

Pronomi combinati

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CI and NE – two particular Italian words

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CI and NE are two common Italian particles. Versatile, very important and sometimes confusing

Italians love to use pronouns, sometimes combined together, sometimes merged with verbs. It’s convenient for us, as the Italian language is greatly simplified by the use of pronouns.

For students, however, it can be rather confusing. “Ci and “Ne” are usually studied together as examples of flexible, useful “pronominal particles”, particelle pronominali and particelle avverbiali. We’ll call them pronouns and adverbs to make it simple.

This is a very basic post introducing CI and NE and their use in spoken Italian.

(continues …)

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CI and NE – two particular Italian words

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Interiezioni and intercalari, the “parsley” of the Italian language

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È come il prezzemolo! Italian intercalari

He’s like parsley! That’s what Italians say of someone or something you see everywhere, like parsley on Italian dishes. Intercalari and interiezioni are elements of the Italian spoken language that people sprinkle all over, to emphasize what they want to say.

Just like parsley, intercalari and interiezioni are really everywhere in the Italian spoken language. But, again, just like parsley, when there are too many, they can spoil the taste of our beautiful language.

Intercalari are fragments, specific words used outside the canonical structure of a sentence. They can give an elegant pace to a speech but they also could be be very annoying, a sort of linguistic nervous tic.

Allora, appunto, insomma, diciamo, dai, vabè (a Milano), vabbè (a Roma), vabbuò (a Napoli), così, ecco, cioè, è vero, non so, come dire, voglio dire, ti dico, per così dire, diciamo, vedi, guarda, senti, praticamente, tipo, un attimino and many others, are classic intercalari.

Some of them are used as ice-breakers to start a sentence (allora, dunque, senti, guarda, vedi, praticamente …) others as a sort of request, a confirmation that you are listening to what I’m saying… (cioè, allora, no?, niente, proprio, capito) to which you are supposed to nod, like when someone in English says ” you know” every 10 words.

Here below, a fragment of an Italian cult comedy movie called “Un sacco bello”: a debate between a desperate father, a hippie son with his girlfriend living in a community in Tuscany, and a priest. They have a strong Roman accent and speak quite fast. Don’t worry, just listen.

Try to count the cioè, allora, proprio, no? niente, and others you may catch.

That was quite extreme, but some people use intercalari a bit too much.

Finally the interiezioni are a sort of intercalari, but usually shorter expressions of different emotions. Depending on the intonation and intensity, the same sound can have different meanings, followed by a question mark or an exclamation. I can’t include all the feelings here but I will write some emotions in Italian. Google them and find their meaning.

  • Ah: sorpresa, desiderio, rabbia, dubbio
  • Eh: sorpresa, indignazione, approvazione, rabbia
  • Oh: gioia, sorpresa, ammirazione
  • Boh: sorpresa, smarrimento
  • Mah: dubbio
  • Toh; sorpresa,

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Italian articoli partitivi, “some” in Italian – QUIZ

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Articoli partitivi are used to indicate a part, a number out of a total. Some…

This is a very short and simple article for beginners. I’m going to introduce a simple way for you to indicate a quantity, pretty much equivalent the English “some”.

The Italian articoli partitivi are obtained by adding the preposition di (of) to the articoli determinativi:

di + …

il —> del

lo —> dello

la —> della

i —> dei

gli —> degli

le —> delle

l’ —> dell’

Il vino: vorrei del vino

Lo zucchero: ho comprato dello zucchero

La carne: mangerei della carne

I fiori: le ho regalato dei fiori

Gli amici: ho invitato degli amici

Le uova: Vai a comprare delle uova

L’aglio: Aggiungi dell’aglio al sugo

Singular Articoli Partitivi are used in combination with uncountable nouns, in Italian nomi di massa), words such as: foods – acqua, vino, formaggio, verdura, carne – etc ; materials: legno, carta etc.

In spoken Italian, instead of using the articoli partitivi, often times we can use “un po’ di”, literally “a little of” (quantity).

So for example, instead of saying, “ho mangiato dei cioccolatini” I can simply say “ho mangiato un po’ di cioccolatini”.

Here’s a simple quiz for you. Please answer anche check your score against the average.

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Avverbi, Italian adverbs – Complete guide, Audio examples, Quiz

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Italian adverbs are called avverbi

The avverbio, derived from the Latin “ad verbum”, next to the verb, is an invariable part of speech that is positioned alongside the verb to provide specific meaning. Similar to how adjectives modify nouns, the traditional function of adverbs is to add information to the verb and specify the meaning. This analogy becomes evident here:

  • La macchina di Mario è veloce. (aggettivo)
  • Mario guida velocemente. (avverbio)

We use Italian adverbs to add meaning to verbs, adjectives or other parts of a sentence.

According to their structure, we can talk about:

  • Avverbi semplici: we can call the “primitive”, as they don’t derive from other words. Mai, forse, bene, male. etc.
  • Avverbi composti: resulting from combination of words. Da+per+tutto = dappertutto (every + where = everywhere).
  • Avverbi derivati: coming form other words, usually adjectives, with the addition of the suffix – mente (in English -ly). Chiaro (clear) -> chiaramente (clearly).

The avverbi derivati are commonly formed by adding the suffix -mente to the feminine singular form of the adjective.

For example: lento —> lenta + mente (slowly), rapidamente (quickly), certamente (certainly) etcetera.

If the adjective ends in -le or -re, the -e is dropped before attaching -mente, as observed in the adverbs:

Facile —> facil + mente —> facilmente (easily), gentilmente (kindly), particolarmente (particularly).

Similarly, other adverbs conforming to these patterns include dolcemente (sweetly), tranquillamente (calmly), chiaramente (clearly), pazientemente (patiently), sicuramente (surely), notevolmente (remarkably) etcetera.

We can classify the Italian avverbi in 6 main groups, according to their function:

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Avverbi, Italian adverbs

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